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2. Laboratory testing of cannabis and its derivative products

The Cannabis plant, when chemically broken down, has some 750 or more constituents, with as many as 140 of them being identified as cannabinoids.[1][2][3] However, analyzing the chemical constituents of cannabis is a difficult task due to its matrix, and the task becomes even more difficult when it's added to food and other matrix types, requiring established and consistent methods for testing.[4][5] Regulators, users, and the testing industry have over the years made calls for standardizing both the production and testing of medical and recreational marijuana. Without proper standardized testing, several issues are bound to arise[6][7][8][9][10][11]:

  • label claims may not match actual contents;
  • contaminants may linger, causing illness or even death;
  • chemical properties and medicinal benefits of specific strains and their unique cannabinoid-terpene profiles can't be isolated; and
  • research on potential therapeutic qualities can't be replicated, hindering scientific progress.

As legalization efforts continue at the federal level in the U.S.[12][13][14], it's more important than ever that the standards and practices that make up laboratory testing of cannabis continue to solidify into a more consensus-based approach.

But what do we know so far about the Cannabis plant and its constituents? What are the current standards and practices used in various U.S. states (and other parts of the world)? What does the workflow of laboratory testing of cannabis look like today? And what are the requirements for certifying and reporting results? This chapter addresses these questions.

2.1 Analytical aspects

Cannabis has many constituents, and, being a plant, can absorb or come in contact with a variety of contaminants. From a regulatory perspective, cannabinoids, terpenes, and contaminants are most likely to be analyzed by a cannabis testing lab. Therefore, this section will focus on those.

2.1.1 Cannabinoids

Somewhere between 104 and upwards of more than 140 of the over 750 constituents of Cannabis sativa have been identified as cannabinoids[1][2][3], active chemical compounds that act in a similar way to compounds our body naturally produces, and new cannabinoids continue to be identified during cannabis research.[3][15] Many of our body's cells have cannabinoid receptors capable of modulating neurotransmitter release in the brain and other areas.[16] The plant's cannabinoids vary, with each bonding to specific receptors in our body, providing differing effects. From a theoretical and medical standpoint, crafting a strain of cannabis that has specific cannabinoids that can aid with a particular malady, while also carefully reproducing the grow conditions to consistently make that strain in the future, is a desirable but difficult goal to achieve.[17] However, even as new strains are developed, identifying an existing strain effectively has its own set of challenges, as Mudge et al. point out: "the total [tetrahydrocannabinol] and [cannabidiol] content is not sufficient to distinguish strains [though] a combination of targeted and untargeted chemometric approaches can be used to predict cannabinoid composition and to better understand the impact of informal breeding program and selection on the phytochemical diversity of cannabis."[3]

Lab testing of cannabinoids is done primarily as a measure of psychoactive "potency," though cannabinoids have many other potential therapeutic uses. Current laboratory testing looks at only a handful of cannabinoids; more research and development of analytical techniques that can quickly and accurately detect and separate the rest is required.[9] Some of the major cannabinoids tested for include[3][18][19][20]:

  • THC (∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol): This is the most commonly known cannabinoid found in cannabis, notable for its strong psychoactive effects and ability to aid with pain, sleep, and appetite issues. Included is its analogue ∆8-Tetrahydrocannabinol (which shows notably less strong psychoactive effects than ∆9[21]) and its homologue THCV (Tetrahydrocannabivarin), which tends to appear in trace amounts and has a more pronounced psychoactive effect, but for a shorter duration. THCV shows promise in fighting anxiety, tremors from neurological disorders, appetite issues, and special cases of bone loss. Also notable is ∆9-THCA (∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid), a non-psychoactive biosynthetic precursor to THC.
  • CBC (Cannabichromene): This non-psychoactive cannabinoid is found in trace amounts; however, it tends to be markedly more effective at treating anxiety and stress than CBD (see next). It's also notable for its anti-inflammatory properties and potential use for bone deficiencies.
  • CBD (Cannabidiol): CBD is a non-psychoactive component of cannabis, typically accounting for up to 35 to 40 percent of cannabis extracts. It acts as a counter-balance to THC, regulating its psychoactivity. It's been researched as a treatment for anxiety, sleep loss, inflammation, stress, pain, and epilepsy, among other afflictions. Included is its homologue CBDV (Cannabidivarin), which is also non-psychoactive and demonstrates promise as a treatment for epileptic seizures. Also notable is CBDA (cannabidiolic acid), a non-psychoactive biosynthetic precursor to CBD.
  • CBG (Cannabigerol): This cannabinoid is also non-psychoactive but only appears in trace amounts of cannabis. It has potential as a sleep aid, anti-bacterial, and cell growth stimulant. Also notable is CBGA (cannabigerolic acid), a non-psychoactive biosynthetic precursor to CBG.
  • CBN (Cannabinol): CBN is mildly psychoactive at best and appears only in trace amounts in Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica. It occurs largely as a metabolite of THC and tends to have one of the strongest sedative effects among cannabinoids. It shows promise as a treatment for insomnia, glaucoma, and certain types of pain.

2.1.2 Terpenes

Mandated lab testing of terpenes—volatile organic compounds that distinctly affect cannabis aroma and taste—is done primarily as a way to ensure proper labeling of cannabis and related products, including extracts and concentrates, so buyers have confidence in what they are purchasing.[22][23][24] However, additional lab research goes into terpenes as they also show potentially useful pharmacological properties[22][24][25], and they demonstrate synergies (referred to at times as the "entourage effect") with cannabinoids, requiring further research.[10][25][24][26] Testing for specific terpenes (discussed later) has histoically been less of a standardized practice[22], though it's rapidly improving.[27] Commonly tested terpenes by third-party testing labs include[24][23][25][10][27][20][28]:

2.1.3 Contaminants

Generally speaking, a contaminant is an unwanted substance that may show up in the final product, be it recreational marijuana or a pharmaceutical company's therapeutic tincture. The following are examples of contaminants that laboratories may test for in cannabis products.

Pesticides: Pesticides represent an oft-discussed aspect not only of growing cannabis but also performing analytical testing on it. One of the core issues, again, is the fact that on the federal level marijuana is illegal. Because it's illegal, government agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have historically failed to develop standards or guidelines for what's safe when it comes to residual pesticides in cannabis, let alone how to best test for them.[29][30] Additionally, researchers have faced their fair share of difficulties obtaining product to test over the years. The end result is we're only now barely understanding how inhalation of pesticide-coated marijuana smoke affects long-term health[29][30][27], and standard methods for pesticide application and testing have been slow to develop.[10][31] With numerous pesticide products and little oversight on what growers apply to their plants, combined with the technical difficulty of testing for pesticides in the lab, pesticides remain one of the most difficult contaminants to test for.[10][31] That said, several classes of of pesticides are commonly applied during cannabis cultivation and can be tested for by labs[27][19][9][32]:

  • avermectins: function as an insecticide that is useful against mites, which are a common problem for cultivators
  • carbamates: function as an insecticide, similar to organophosphates, but with decreased dermal toxicity and higher degradation
  • heterocyclics: function as a broad set of compounds with many industrial uses, including as pesticides
  • organochlorides: function as a broadly useful chemical in applications such as plastics, cleaning agents, insulators, and pesticides
  • organophosphates: function as the base of many insecticides and herbicides, valued for its easy organic bonding
  • pyrethroids: function as the base of most household insecticides and exhibits insect repellent properties

Solvents: In 2003, Canadian Rick Simpson published a recipe of sorts for preparing cannabis extract via the use of solvents such as naphtha or petroleum ether. Claiming the resulting oil helped cure his skin cancer, others hoping for a cure tried it, and the solvent method of preparation grew in popularity. Dubious healing claims aside, the solvent extraction method remains viable today, though it has evolved over the years to include less harmful solvents such as supercritical carbon dioxide, which has low toxicity, low environmental impact, and beneficial extraction properties.[10][33][34] However, chemical solvents are still used, and if not evaporated out properly, the remaining solvents can be particularly harmful to sick patients using the extract. As for what solvents should be tested for, it gets a bit trickier, though Chapter 467 of United States Pharmacopeia and The National Formulary, the Oregon Health Authority's December 2015 technical report on contaminant testing of cannabis, and the Massachusetts Department of Public Health's response to public comments on cannabis testing provide helpful guidance. Listed solvents include benzene, butane, cumene, dimethoxyethane, ethanol, hexane, pentane and propane, among others.[27][9][19][10][32][35][36]


Heavy metals: 2013 research on contaminant testing on the behalf of Washington State provides insights into heavy metals and why they're looked for in cannabis testing. That research, as well as other more recent sources, tell us[27][9][19][10][37]:

  • Heavy metals contribute to several health problems, including those of a neurological nature.
  • Cannabis can "hyperaccumulate metals from contaminated soils."
  • Research parallels can be found in tobacco research and how the FDA regulates heavy metal content in foods.
  • The most prominently tested heavy metals include arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and nickel (Ni).


Mycotoxins and microorganisms: "The ideal conditions for cannabis growth are also ideal for the growth of potentially harmful bacteria and fungi, including yeast and molds," say Shimadzu's Scott Kuzdzal and William Lipps, "therefore microbial contamination poses health risks to consumers and immunocompromised individuals."[18] In truth, these concerns have already borne out. In fact, the University of California, Davis reported in February 2017 one of its patients had contracted an incurable fungal infection from inhaling aerosolized marijuana. They later tested 20 marijuana samples from Northern California dispensaries—using specialized techniques—and found a wide variety of potentially hazardous microorganisms.[38]

The degree to which such contaminants commonly appear in grown and stored cannabis material and to which microbiological contaminants should be tested is not clear, however. As mentioned previously, the U.S. EPA has historically had little in the way of significant guidance on cannabis testing, including microbiological contaminants.[39] Like heavy metal testing, parallels are drawn from microbial testing guidelines and standards relating to tobacco and food, where they exist.[39] As warm, moist environments are conducive to microorganism growth, maintaining stable moisture levels during cultivation and storage is essential. Regularly measuring water activity—how moist something is—is particularly useful as a front-line preventative tool to better ensure microbial growth is limited.[32] Regardless, testing of some kind is still required by many U.S. states, including for organisms such as[27][18][19][10][32][38][39][40][41]:

2.2 Analytical methods and tools

A great number of approaches to analyzing cannabis constituents and contaminants have been developed and prescribed over the years. The following section examines the most common of these approaches.

2.2.1 Sampling

Random, representative sampling is encouraged. When dealing with solid cannabis, BOTEC Analysis recommends a "quartering" method that divides the sample into four equal parts and takes portions from opposite sections of a square-shaped arrangement of the sample. For liquid cannabis products, remembering to stir before sample collection is advised.[19] Sampling techniques may also vary depending on the constituent being tested, as with terpene testing, which may favor full evaporative technique (FET) headspace-based (HS) sampling for reducing certain sampling biases.[27] Another consideration may be the matrix being tested, as when deriving a sample from a cannabis-laden edible; the QuEChERS approach used by food safety labs for pesticide testing may have practical use.[42] In fact, a variety of parallels have been drawn from the food and herbal medicine industries' sampling guidelines, including from the Codex Alimentarius Commission's CAC/GL 50-2004 General Guidelines on Sampling as well as various chapters of the United States Pharmacopeia and The National Formulary.[19][43] As the Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL) points out, "[g]ood sampling is key to improving analytical data equivalency among organizations," and it provides a solid base for any future testing and standardization efforts.[19]

Additional sampling insight can be found by examining other states' guidelines, e.g., Massachusetts' Protocol for Sampling and Analysis of Finished Medical Marijuana Products and Marijuana-Infused Products for Massachusetts Registered Medical Marijuana Dispensaries[44], as well as ASTM D8334/D8334M-20 Standard Practice for Sampling of Cannabis/Hemp Post-Harvest Batches for Laboratory Analyses.[45]

2.2.2 Cannabinoids

Quantifying cannabinoids for label accuracy is a major goal of testing, though calculation and testing processes may vary slightly from state to state. Despite any differences, laboratorians generally agree that when testing for cannabinoids such as THC and CBD, as well as their respective biosynthetic precursors THCA and CBDA, the methodology used must be scrutinized. The naturally occurring THCA of cannabis isn't psychoactive; it requires decarboxylation (a chemical reaction induced by drying/heating that releases carbon dioxide) to convert itself into the psychoactive cannabinoid THC. Chemical calculations show that the process of decarboxylation results in approximately 87.7 percent of the THCA's mass converting to THC, with the other 12.3 percent bubbling off as CO2 gas.[46] The problem with this in the testing domain is gas chromatography (GC) involves heating the sample solution. If you, the lab technician, require precise numbers of both THCA and THC, then GC analysis poses the risk of under-reporting THC total values.[19] As such, liquid chromatography-diode array detection (LC-DAD) may be required if a concise profile of all cannabinoids must be made, primarily because it provides environmental stability for them all during analysis. If GC is used, the analysis requires extra considerations such as sample derivatization.[19][10][47][48]

The APHL briefly describes analysis methods of cannabinoids using both LC and GC on pages 31–32 of their May 2016 Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs. They also point to New York Department of Health - Wadsworth Center's various guidance documents (MML-300, -301, and -303) for methodologies when testing sample types other than solids, particularly using high-performance liquid chromatography photodiode array detection (HPLC-PAD).[19][49] Also worth noting is that ASTM's Subcommittee D37.03 has been working on various standard methods for determining cannabinoid concentrations using different chromatography techniques[50], while the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) has already developed a Standard Method Performance Requirement (SMPR) for analyzing cannabinoids in hemp (i.e., low THC cannabis varieties).[51]

Overall, various methods used in cannabinoid testing include[19][10][49][52][53][54][27]:

Also worthy of note is recent investigation of viably using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy as a more affordable and rapid solution to identifying cannabinoid contents and profiles of samples. Conferences[55], research[56][57][58], and articles[59][60][61] over the last four or five years have advanced the use of NMR spectroscopy for cannabinoid analysis.

2.2.3 Terpenes

Identifying and quantifying terpenes is one of the more difficult tasks facing laboratorians, according to Cassidy[10]:

Terpenes present an analytical challenge because they are nonpolar and structurally similar, and many structural isomers exist. Mass spectrometry (MS) cannot distinguish terpenes that co-elute from a GC column because many have the same molecular weight and share fragment ions.

Goldman et al. share Cassidy's view about MS, though reminding that it has some benefits over flame ionization detection (FID). They note that recent MS methods add another level of confirmation for terpene identification using retention indexing and electron impact mass spectral matching.[27]

Of course, types of gas chromatography work; but like cannabinoids, terpenes can degrade with the high heat of gas chromatography.[54] Combined with the problems mentioned above, highly specialized gas chromatography processes that include additional steps, such as full evaporation technique headspace gas chromatography flame ionization detection (FET-HS-GC-FID), can be used to produce cleaner results, particularly for volatile components.[10] It's less clear if high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is used frequently; some entities such as Eurofins Experchem Laboratories claim HPLC works best for them[54], while others such as Restek Corporation claim the method is problematic at best.[62]

Overall, various published methods for terpene identification and analysis include[10][27][28][53][63][54][64][65]:

  • Full evaporation technique–headspace–gas chromatography–flame ionization detection (FET-HS-GC-FID; tends to be semi-quantitative)
  • Gas chromatography–flame ionization detection (GC-FID)
  • Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
  • Gas chromatography–tandem-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS)
  • Gas chromatography–vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy (GC-VUV)
  • Headspace–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-GC-MS)
  • Headspace–solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME)
  • High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; may have limitations due to coelution of terpenes and cannabinoids at certain ranges[62])

2.2.4 Contaminants

LC MS pic.jpg

Pesticides: Gas and liquid chromatography methods are by and large the staple of testing methods for pesticides, which remain "the hardest analyses that are going to be done in the cannabis industry."[10] Goldman et al. echo the sentiment: "pesticide testing is difficult and requires advanced analytical instrumentation and highly skilled staff to meet regulatory demands with a robust, accurate, and precise test method."[27] Notably, high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) tends to be one of the most thorough methods says Emerald Scientific's CTO Amanda Rigdon. "Ninety-five percent of the pesticides out there can be analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS, although there are some that you would need a GC-MS/MS for," she says.[10] A popular sample extraction method for detecting multiple pesticide residues in cannabis is the QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) method, which shows "acceptable recoveries and relative standard deviations" for almost all known pesticides[27][4][66][67][68], though the release of heat and increase in pH of QuECHERS may degrade particularly sensitive pesticides in the sample.[69] QuECHERS may also not be ideal for some labs due to its organic solvents having a tendency of extracting hydrophobic compounds like cannabinoids.[27] However, other methods such as solvent extraction (such as with acetonitrile) with dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE) cleanup[66][68][69] and energized dispersive guided extraction (EDGE) may also been used.[65] Common testing methods that have historically been used, after sample preparation, include[19][64][65][67][68][69]:

  • Gas chromatography–electron capture detection (GC-ECD)
  • Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
  • Gas chromatography–tandem-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS)
  • Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS; also high-performance or HPLC-MS)
  • Liquid chromatography–tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS; also high-performance or HPLC-MS/MS)

For quantification of pesticides in cannabis, the AOAC's SMPR 2018.011, EPA's Residue Analytical Methods (RAM), and FDA's Pesticide Analytical Manual (PAM) provide guidance to labs.[19][70][71][72]


Solvents: Testing for solvents is largely standardized into a few options, which have parallels to existing pharmaceutical testing standards outlined in Chapter 467 of United States Pharmacopeia and The National Formulary (USP <467>)[35][27][19][10][64][73][74]:

  • Headspace–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (HS-GC/MS)
  • Headspace–gas chromatography/tandem-mass spectrometry (HS-GC-MS/MS; may be required when high concentrations of terpenes are present)
  • Headspace–gas chromatography–flame ionization detection–mass spectrometry (HS-GC-FID-MS)
  • Full evaporation technique–headspace–gas chromatography–flame ionization detection (FET-HS-GC-FID)

Massachusetts and Oregon—and likely other states—have used a variety of guidance documents such as USP <467>, reports from the Commission of the European Communities' Scientific Committee on Food (now the European Food Safety Authority), and the International Conference on Harmonization's (ICH) Q3C(R5)[19][36][32][35] to set their action level testing values for particular solvents. The AOAC provides another standardized option in the form of their SMPR 2019.002.[75]


Heavy metals: The methods used for quantifying levels of highly toxic metals in plants depend on ease-of-use, level of accuracy, and overall cost. Sample preparation typically includes the use of closed-vessel microwave digestion to get the sample into solution for analysis.[65][76] Once prepared, the following methods are most common for testing cannabis and other plants for heavy metals[27][9][19][10][77][64]:

For quantification of metals in cannabis, the U.S. FDA's ICP-MS methodology document is often used.[19][78]


Mycotoxins and microorganisms: A standard method of testing for the existence of microorganisms is through the process of culturing a sample in a Petri dish, a common diagnostic method in microbiology. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is also used, particularly to identify mycotoxins.[27] However, Petri culture analysis isn't rigorous, and ELISA can at times be time-consuming, as it's limited to one mycotoxin per test.[27][9][10][39] The following are other, more precise techniques that are improving laboratorians' analyses, particularly using DNA snippets of microbiological contaminants[27][9][10][39][79][80]:

The extent of mycotoxin testing required remains in question by several entities. The APHL claims "[t]here is no readily available evidence to support the contention that cannabis harbors significant levels of mycotoxins."[19] The Oregon Health Authority takes a more middle-ground approach, noting that testing for E. coli and Salmonella will "protect public health," though Aspergillus only deserves a warning for people with suppressed immune systems due to its prevalence in the environment.[32] USP <561> recommendations largely limit mycotoxin testing of botanical products to those borne from root or rhizome material[81], "which THC-containing cannabis products presumably do not possess," emphasizes the APHL.[19]

Regardless, U.S. Pharmacopeia's Chapter 561 remains a useful document for testing guidelines and limits regarding microbials[81][19], as does the AOAC's SMPR 2019.001 for the detection of Aspergillus.[82] In the less common case of dealing with powdered cannabis—a relatively new THC extract form—Chapter 2023 provides at least some testing parallels, though Dr. Tony Cundell, a microbiologist consulting for the pharmaceutical industry, suggests USP <2023> doesn't go far enough for immunocompromised patients.[83]

Somewhat related and worth mentioning is moisture content testing. As previously mentioned, warm, moist environments are conducive to microorganism growth, and regularly measuring water activity is useful for the prevention of microbial growth.[32] The APHL references specifications from the Dutch Office of Medical Cannabis that recommend water content be between five to ten percent in cannabis.[19]

2.3 Cannabis testing laboratory workflow

The analytical methods of testing cannabis constituents and contaminants, as well as their associated workflows, depend on the type of laboratory conducting testing. For example, an extraction-specific lab's workflow will look a bit different from the workflow of a commercial production lab or a state-mandated, independent quality testing lab. Broadly speaking, however, non-extraction cannabis testing lab workflows will have some aspects in common. Those workflow similarities, from beginning to end, include[84][85][86]:

  1. reception of test orders—often through a secure web portal—and samples, as well as the start of sample tracking with RFID and barcodes for chain-of-custody purposes;
  2. assignment of tests to analysts and instruments;
  3. processing of samples—including any required quality control (QC) samples—as well as any necessary grinding, homogenization, extraction, filtration, and evaporation processes;
  4. chromatographic separation, or any other non-chromatographic preparative methods, for samples, based upon the target constituent or contaminant;
  5. actual qualitative and/or quantitative analysis, based on standards and reference materials, with appropriate notification of out-of-range or -specification results;
  6. exporting of instrument data, preferably to an information management system like a LIMS, where the data is processed and recorded with the associated existing sample data;
  7. organization and review of results by designated laboratory personnel, with results either getting approved or not approved; and
  8. reporting of approved results in a compliant format, e.g., a certificate of analysis (COA), and distributed to appropriate stakeholders (often through a secure web portal).

Of course, the specific details of the methods you choose to employ will slightly modify your workflows, as will your lab's own process and procedure (P&P) documentation. For example, your workflow for testing heavy metals may differ slightly from the U.S. FDA's ICP-MS methodology. Ultimately, your workflow will be based upon many factors, including the analyses you decided to perform, methods you choose, the equipment you use, the way your lab is laid out, the P&P you follow, and the data management systems and automation you choose. Ultimately, however, the above components will likely have a place in your overall workflow.

That said, workflows can usually be optimized in any laboratory, saving time and money while increasing productivity.[87][88] Keeping P&P documents, methods, and training documentation aligned with a rapidly changing industry like cannabis testing is vital to smooth workflows. Other minor considerations for smoothing out workflow problems in the cannabis testing laboratory includes adding additional automation elements[84][89][90], optimizing workspaces (e.g., well-spaced lab tables, sufficient cabinets and storage)[91], and staggering shifts (e.g., for improving social distancing success during a pandemic).[92] It's best to address these and other such issues early on to ensure the best outcomes from your workflows.

2.3.1 Differences beyond analyzing plant material

Workflows can also differ slightly based upon the substrate being tested. Here are a few differences to consider.

Medical vs. recreational

Speaking in broad terms, medical cannabis tends to differ from recreational cannabis such that medical cannabis has lower THC and higher CBD than recreational cannabis, and vice versa. However, even this broad generalization isn't all that accurate. Another way to generalize this is to say that medical cannabis patients prefer a wider variety of cannabis products with varying formulated balances in THC, CBD, and other cannabinoids and terpenes, whereas recreational users may—perhaps incorrectly—put more emphasis on high-THC content, caring less about some other aspects of the product.[93][94][95][96][97][98] Some medical cannabis patients may require high amounts of THC to manage pain[95], while others may find that a much lower THC dose manages their pain better.[96] And recreational cannabis users who are knowledgeable don't always want to go for the highest THC content in their acquisitions.[97] Given these facts, it's difficult to make generalizations about the content of medical cannabis vs. recreational cannabis. Complicating the matter even further is a recent study in PLOS One that found "more than 90 percent of the legal cannabis products offered in medical dispensaries vastly exceed the THC levels recommended for chronic pain relief."[99]Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; invalid names, e.g. too many PerkinElmer's Toby Astill notes that producers of "cannabeverages" turn to HPLC for accurate cannabinoid measurement, LC-MS/MS for pesticide residues and mycotoxins, headspace GC-MS for residual solvents, and ICP-MS for heavy metals. Flavor and aroma profiles can also be managed with headspace GC-MS.[100]

Veterinary products

2.4 Reporting and certification of results

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Radwan, M.M.; ElSohly, M.A.; El-Alfy, A.T. et al. (2015). "Isolation and pharmacological evaluation of minor cannabinoids from high-potency Cannabis sativa". Journal of Natural Products 78 (6): 1271-6. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00065. PMC PMC4880513. PMID 26000707. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4880513. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Solymosi, K.; Köfalvi, A. (2017). "Cannabis: A Treasure Trove or Pandora's Box?". Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry 17: 1123–91. doi:10.2174/1389557516666161004162133. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Mudge, E.M.; Murch, S.J.; Brown, P.N. (2018). "Chemometric Analysis of Cannabinoids: Chemotaxonomy and Domestication Syndrome". Scientific Reports 8: 13090. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-31120-2. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 DePalma, A. (10 September 2018). "Challenges of Cannabis Contaminant Testing". Lab Manager. LabX Media Group. https://www.labmanager.com/insights/2018/09/challenges-of-cannabis-contaminant-testing. Retrieved 08 January 2020.  Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "DePalmaChallenges18" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ Cummings, J., "Gurus of Pesticide Residue Analysis [The Cannabis Scientist"] (PDF), The Analytical Scientist (Texere Logo Texere Publishing Ltd) (0218), https://theanalyticalscientist.com/fileadmin/tas/pdf-versions/TCS_Issue4.pdf 
  6. ↑ Hazekamp, A.; Fischedick, J.T. (2012). "Cannabis - from cultivar to chemovar". Drug Testing and Analysis 4 (7–8): 660–7. doi:10.1002/dta.407. PMID 22362625. 
  7. ↑ Bush, E. (18 February 2015). "World’s strongest weed? Potency testing challenged". The Seattle Times. The Seattle Times Company. http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/worldrsquos-strongest-weed-potency-testing-challenged/. Retrieved 13 January 2021. 
  8. ↑ Rutsch, P. (24 March 2015). "Quality-Testing Legal Marijuana: Strong But Not Always Clean". Shots. National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/03/24/395065699/quality-testing-legal-marijuana-strong-but-not-always-clean. Retrieved 13 January 2021. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 Kuzdzal, S.; Clifford, R.; Winkler, P.; Bankert, W. (December 2017). "A Closer Look at Cannabis Testing" (PDF). Shimadzu Corporation. https://www.ssi.shimadzu.com/sites/ssi.shimadzu.com/files/Industry/Literature/Shimadzu_Whitepaper_Emerging_Cannabis_Industry.pdf. Retrieved 13 January 2021.  Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "KuzdzalACloser16" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "KuzdzalACloser16" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "KuzdzalACloser16" defined multiple times with different content
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 Cassiday, L. (October 2016). "The Highs and Lows of Cannabis Testing". INFORM. American Oil Chemists' Society. https://www.aocs.org/stay-informed/inform-magazine/featured-articles/the-highs-and-lows-of-cannabis-testing-october-2016. Retrieved 13 January 2021.  Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "CassidayTheHighs16" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "CassidayTheHighs16" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "CassidayTheHighs16" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "CassidayTheHighs16" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "CassidayTheHighs16" defined multiple times with different content
  11. ↑ "How Accurate Is Cannabis Potency Testing?". California NORML. 21 September 2011. https://www.canorml.org/business-resources-for-cannabis-brands/how-accurate-is-cannabis-potency-testing/. Retrieved 13 January 2021. 
  12. ↑ "House Passes Legislation to Make Small Businesses in Cannabis Industry Eligible for SBA Lending Programs". Committee News. Small Business Administration. 4 December 2020. https://smallbusiness.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=3480. Retrieved 07 January 2021. 
  13. ↑ Welsh, D. (4 December 2020). "House Approves Decriminalizing Marijuana; Bill To Stall In Senate". NPR. https://www.npr.org/2020/12/04/942949288/house-approves-decriminalizing-marijuana-bill-to-stall-in-senate. Retrieved 08 January 2021. 
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  100. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named AstillTheAnal20
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Citation information for this chapter

Chapter: 2. Laboratory testing of cannabis

Edition: Winter 2020

Title: LIMS Buyer’s Guide for Cannabis Testing Laboratories

Author for citation: Shawn E. Douglas

License for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International

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