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''[[Cannabis]]'' (''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' L.) is [[Cannabis cultivation|cultivated]] by licensed producers in Canada for [[Cannabis (drug)|medicinal]] and recreational uses. The recent legalization of this plant in 2018 has resulted in rapid expansion of the industry, with greenhouse production representing the most common method of cultivation. Female ''Cannabis'' plants produce [[inflorescence]]s that contain bracts densely covered by glandular [[trichome]]s, which synthesize a range of commercially important [[cannabinoids]] (e.g., [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] [THC] and [[cannabidiol]] [CBD]), as well as [[terpene]]s. Cannabinoid content and quality varies over the eight-week flowering period to such an extent that the time of harvest can significantly impact product [[Quality control|quality]]. Cannabis flower maturation is accompanied by a transition in the color of trichome heads that progresses from clear to milky to brown (amber) and can be seen visually using low magnification. However, the importance of this transition as it impacts quality and describes maturity has never been investigated. | ''[[Cannabis]]'' (''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' L.) is [[Cannabis cultivation|cultivated]] by licensed producers in Canada for [[Cannabis (drug)|medicinal]] and recreational uses. The recent legalization of this plant in 2018 has resulted in rapid expansion of the industry, with greenhouse production representing the most common method of cultivation. Female ''Cannabis'' plants produce [[inflorescence]]s that contain bracts densely covered by glandular [[trichome]]s, which synthesize a range of commercially important [[cannabinoids]] (e.g., [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] [THC] and [[cannabidiol]] [CBD]), as well as [[terpene]]s. Cannabinoid content and quality varies over the eight-week flowering period to such an extent that the time of harvest can significantly impact product [[Quality control|quality]]. Cannabis flower maturation is accompanied by a transition in the color of trichome heads that progresses from clear to milky to brown (amber) and can be seen visually using low magnification. However, the importance of this transition as it impacts quality and describes maturity has never been investigated. | ||
To establish a relationship between trichome maturation and trichome head color changes ([[phenotype]]), we developed a novel automatic trichome gland analysis pipeline using deep learning. We first collected a macro-photography dataset based on four commercially grown [[Cannabis strains|''Cannabis'' strains]], namely Afghan Kush, Green Death Bubba, Pink Kush, and White Rhino. Images were obtained in two modalities: conventional macroscopic light photography and macroscopic UV induced fluorescence. We then implemented a pipeline where the clear-milky-brown heuristic was injected into the algorithm to quantify trichome phenotype progression during the eight-week flowering period. A series of clear, milky, and brown phenotype curves were recorded for each strain over the flowering period that were validated as indicators of trichome maturation and corresponded to previously described parameters of trichome development, such as trichome gland head diameter and stalk elongation. We also derived morphological metrics describing trichome gland geometry from deep learning segmentation predictions that profiled trichome maturation over the flowering period. | To establish a relationship between trichome maturation and trichome head color changes ([[phenotype]]), we developed a novel automatic trichome gland analysis pipeline using [[wikipedia::Deep learning|deep learning]]. We first collected a macro-photography dataset based on four commercially grown [[Cannabis strains|''Cannabis'' strains]], namely Afghan Kush, Green Death Bubba, Pink Kush, and White Rhino. Images were obtained in two modalities: conventional macroscopic light photography and macroscopic UV induced fluorescence. We then implemented a pipeline where the clear-milky-brown heuristic was injected into the algorithm to quantify trichome phenotype progression during the eight-week flowering period. A series of clear, milky, and brown phenotype curves were recorded for each strain over the flowering period that were validated as indicators of trichome maturation and corresponded to previously described parameters of trichome development, such as trichome gland head diameter and stalk elongation. We also derived morphological metrics describing trichome gland geometry from deep learning segmentation predictions that profiled trichome maturation over the flowering period. | ||
We observed that mature and senescing trichomes displayed fluorescent properties that were reflected in the clear, milky, and brown phenotypes. Our method was validated by two experiments where factors affecting trichome quality and flower development were imposed, and the effects were then quantified using the deep learning pipeline. Our results indicate the feasibility of automated trichome analysis as a method to evaluate the maturation of female flowers cultivated in a highly variable environment, regardless of strain. These findings have broad applicability in a growing industry in which cannabis flower quality is receiving increased circumspection for medicinal and recreational uses. | We observed that mature and senescing trichomes displayed fluorescent properties that were reflected in the clear, milky, and brown phenotypes. Our method was validated by two experiments where factors affecting trichome quality and flower development were imposed, and the effects were then quantified using the deep learning pipeline. Our results indicate the feasibility of automated trichome analysis as a method to evaluate the maturation of female flowers cultivated in a highly variable environment, regardless of strain. These findings have broad applicability in a growing industry in which cannabis flower quality is receiving increased circumspection for medicinal and recreational uses. | ||
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==Related work== | ==Related work== | ||
===Morphology of cannabis trichomes=== | ===Morphology of cannabis trichomes=== | ||
Trichomes are ubiquitous structures in the plant kingdom. Many essential oil-bearing plants possess glandular trichomes that have important commercial value. [5] Trichomes can also consist of plant hairs lacking a gland, with a spike-like appearance. [6] In [[hemp]] and drug-producing ''Cannabis'' plants, Hammond and Mahlberg [7] studied trichome types using [[Scanning electron microscope|scanning electron microscopy]] (SEM) and described three types: bulbous, sessile, and capitate stalked. They subsequently described the morphological development of capitate stalked trichomes, observing stalk elongation and resin accumulation in the gland on top of the secretory cells. [8] These contributions laid the groundwork for the understanding of cannabinoid synthesis and storage in planta. Mahlberg and Kim [9] further characterized the formation of the trichome gland cuticle and proposed a working model of cannabinoid biosynthesis, hypothesizing that [[tetrahydrocannabinolic acid]] (THCA) is formed outside of plant cells in the storage cavity of the trichome gland. [10] Sirikantaramas ''et al.'' [11] confirmed this hypothesis by localizing the enzymes necessary for cannabinoid synthesis to the storage cavity, determining that cannabinoids are formed from a ring of secretory cells. Livingston ''et al.'' [12] further characterized the development of cannabis trichomes and observed that capitate stalked trichomes develop from sessile type trichomes during the flowering period. The development of trichomes from the sessile to cannabinoid-rich capitate stalked type was accompanied by a shift in autofluorescence of the gland contents from green to blue. | |||
===Trichome maturation=== | |||
The color transition of trichome heads from clear to milky to brown is often used to manually approximate the stage of maturation, with milky representing the optimal state and brown indicating over-maturation. [10,13] However, the relationship between trichome head color and cannabis flower development has not been previously investigated. Previous work has shown a possible negative correlation between trichome head browning and cannabinoid content. Turner ''et al.'' [14] were the first to show reduced cannabinoid content in senescent (brown) capitate stalked glands, although statistical analysis was not reported. Cannabis samples acquired from law enforcement and manually assessed for trichome browning on a linear scale had a lower THCA and increased [[cannabinolic acid]] (CBNA) content compared to ''Cannabis'' samples with clear or milky trichomes. [3] Reduced [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC) content in senescent trichomes glands was also reported by Mahlberg and Kim. [10] There is currently a lack of prior reports describing trichome gland phenotype in relationship to ''Cannabis'' flower development ''in situ'' in ''Cannabis''. | |||
===Automatic assessment of plant trichomes=== | |||
The microscopic nature of trichomes complicates manual observation, but recent advances in automatic methods to assess trichomes have enabled increasingly powerful analyses. Glandular trichomes of tomato were sorted by autofluorescent flow cytometry to separate young and mature trichomes prior to transcriptome analysis of the gland contents. [15] Failmezger ''et al.'' [16] estimated the 3D leaf surface of ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' from 2D microscopy image stacks to characterize trichome growth patterns. Mirnezami ''et al.'' [17] investigated image processing to automatically count soybean trichomes from microscopy images. [[wikipedia::Deep learning|Deep learning]] has also been applied to trichome analysis to estimate the "hairiness" of cotton leaves as a metric of harvest readiness. [18] No previous studies have assessed trichome maturation in ''Cannabis'' using these or similar approaches; thus, metrics that could be used to predict when ''Cannabis'' inflorescences have achieved a maturation stage indicative of optimal cannabinoid content have not been established. | |||
===Contributions=== | |||
In this work, we document changes in trichome gland head phenotypes over the flowering period and compare observations of the trichome glands and the supporting bract tissue. We present a computer vision pipeline to automatically segment and classify trichome gland head phenotypes and validate the pipeline by experiments that induce trichome degradation and alter trichome development. We also explore novel fluorescent trichome gland head traits induced under UV irradiation that were observed from whole glands, as opposed to previous studies that explore fluorescence in a confocal manner. [12,31] We acquired data using conventional optics such that our analysis was carried out ''in situ'' and yielded same-day results. We discuss our results in the context of trichome development and ''Cannabis'' flower maturation in four ''Cannabis'' strains (genotypes) and conclude with comments on the feasibility of on-site imaging technology to automate quality aspects during the ''Cannabis'' cultivation process in the greenhouse. In the following sections, we first describe plant materials, plant propagation, and computational analysis, then present results and conclude with the interpretation of results in the discussion. | |||
==Materials and methods== | |||
===Plant materials=== | |||
Revision as of 22:10, 6 June 2023
| Full article title | Characterization of trichome phenotypes to assess maturation and flower development in Cannabis sativa L. (cannabis) by automatic trichome gland analysis |
|---|---|
| Journal | Smart Agricultural Technology |
| Author(s) | Sutton, D.B.; Punja, Z.K.; Hamarneh, G. |
| Author affiliation(s) | Simon Fraser University |
| Primary contact | Email: darrens at sfu dot ca |
| Year published | 2023 |
| Volume and issue | 3 |
| Article # | 100111 |
| DOI | 10.1016/j.atech.2022.100111 |
| ISSN | 2772-3755 |
| Distribution license | Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International |
| Website | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772375522000764 |
| Download | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772375522000764/pdfft (PDF) |
 |
This article should be considered a work in progress and incomplete. Consider this article incomplete until this notice is removed. |
Abstract
Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is cultivated by licensed producers in Canada for medicinal and recreational uses. The recent legalization of this plant in 2018 has resulted in rapid expansion of the industry, with greenhouse production representing the most common method of cultivation. Female Cannabis plants produce inflorescences that contain bracts densely covered by glandular trichomes, which synthesize a range of commercially important cannabinoids (e.g., tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] and cannabidiol [CBD]), as well as terpenes. Cannabinoid content and quality varies over the eight-week flowering period to such an extent that the time of harvest can significantly impact product quality. Cannabis flower maturation is accompanied by a transition in the color of trichome heads that progresses from clear to milky to brown (amber) and can be seen visually using low magnification. However, the importance of this transition as it impacts quality and describes maturity has never been investigated.
To establish a relationship between trichome maturation and trichome head color changes (phenotype), we developed a novel automatic trichome gland analysis pipeline using deep learning. We first collected a macro-photography dataset based on four commercially grown Cannabis strains, namely Afghan Kush, Green Death Bubba, Pink Kush, and White Rhino. Images were obtained in two modalities: conventional macroscopic light photography and macroscopic UV induced fluorescence. We then implemented a pipeline where the clear-milky-brown heuristic was injected into the algorithm to quantify trichome phenotype progression during the eight-week flowering period. A series of clear, milky, and brown phenotype curves were recorded for each strain over the flowering period that were validated as indicators of trichome maturation and corresponded to previously described parameters of trichome development, such as trichome gland head diameter and stalk elongation. We also derived morphological metrics describing trichome gland geometry from deep learning segmentation predictions that profiled trichome maturation over the flowering period.
We observed that mature and senescing trichomes displayed fluorescent properties that were reflected in the clear, milky, and brown phenotypes. Our method was validated by two experiments where factors affecting trichome quality and flower development were imposed, and the effects were then quantified using the deep learning pipeline. Our results indicate the feasibility of automated trichome analysis as a method to evaluate the maturation of female flowers cultivated in a highly variable environment, regardless of strain. These findings have broad applicability in a growing industry in which cannabis flower quality is receiving increased circumspection for medicinal and recreational uses.
Keywords: Cannabis, trichomes, deep learning, phenotype, fluorescence, precision agriculture
Introduction
Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is valued for its medicinal use in every continent except Antarctica, and many countries have established the legal framework for the [Cannabis cultivation|cultivation]] and sale of recreational-cannabis-derived products. [1] Drug-producing Cannabis strains are characterized by large female inflorescences (flowers) that bear a cluster of pistils surrounded by bracts, which produce large numbers of glandular trichomes where cannabinoids and terpenes are synthesized. [2] Cannabis plants require approximately eight weeks to mature prior to harvest, after which inflorescences are dried for sale in their natural form or processed for value-added products (i.e., edibles, cosmetics, extracted oils). In order to ensure optimal Cannabis quality, it is imperative to identify the stage at which the inflorescences are at the point of prime maturation and hence potency. There are currently no scientifically based methods to predict maturation of inflorescences, and consequently harvests are performed on a calendar basis, i.e., when plants have attained seven to eight weeks of growth. Enacting methods to better assess trichome maturation can lead to improvements in quality assurance for the Cannabis industry.
In this work, we study Cannabis trichome gland head phenotypes as flowers mature and visual trichome changes occur, such as a progression in color of the heads of trichomes from clear to milky to brown. Although these phenotypes have been suggested as a visual heuristic for harvest timing, little scientific work describes them during flower development and trichome maturation. Previous work supports the idea that browning of trichome heads is associated with quality degradation in dried Cannabis [3], but the shelf life of dried Cannabis [4] and progressive trichome browning in storage makes extrapolation of results to fresh Cannabis tissue unpredictable. In order to understand the role of trichome phenotypes during trichome maturation, it is necessary to obtain measurements in situ during flower development.
We describe an automatic computational method that was built to extract trichome phenotype and morphology metrics during Cannabis flower development from macroscopic photographs. To reduce uncertainty related to the chronology of observations, our method was implemented in a commercial greenhouse such that the time delay between excision and photography was minimized. By implementing recent advances in computer vision, we show our automatic method can be used to define trichome maturation in multiple Cannabis strains in high-throughput applications without repeated fine tuning.
Related work
Morphology of cannabis trichomes
Trichomes are ubiquitous structures in the plant kingdom. Many essential oil-bearing plants possess glandular trichomes that have important commercial value. [5] Trichomes can also consist of plant hairs lacking a gland, with a spike-like appearance. [6] In hemp and drug-producing Cannabis plants, Hammond and Mahlberg [7] studied trichome types using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and described three types: bulbous, sessile, and capitate stalked. They subsequently described the morphological development of capitate stalked trichomes, observing stalk elongation and resin accumulation in the gland on top of the secretory cells. [8] These contributions laid the groundwork for the understanding of cannabinoid synthesis and storage in planta. Mahlberg and Kim [9] further characterized the formation of the trichome gland cuticle and proposed a working model of cannabinoid biosynthesis, hypothesizing that tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) is formed outside of plant cells in the storage cavity of the trichome gland. [10] Sirikantaramas et al. [11] confirmed this hypothesis by localizing the enzymes necessary for cannabinoid synthesis to the storage cavity, determining that cannabinoids are formed from a ring of secretory cells. Livingston et al. [12] further characterized the development of cannabis trichomes and observed that capitate stalked trichomes develop from sessile type trichomes during the flowering period. The development of trichomes from the sessile to cannabinoid-rich capitate stalked type was accompanied by a shift in autofluorescence of the gland contents from green to blue.
Trichome maturation
The color transition of trichome heads from clear to milky to brown is often used to manually approximate the stage of maturation, with milky representing the optimal state and brown indicating over-maturation. [10,13] However, the relationship between trichome head color and cannabis flower development has not been previously investigated. Previous work has shown a possible negative correlation between trichome head browning and cannabinoid content. Turner et al. [14] were the first to show reduced cannabinoid content in senescent (brown) capitate stalked glands, although statistical analysis was not reported. Cannabis samples acquired from law enforcement and manually assessed for trichome browning on a linear scale had a lower THCA and increased cannabinolic acid (CBNA) content compared to Cannabis samples with clear or milky trichomes. [3] Reduced tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in senescent trichomes glands was also reported by Mahlberg and Kim. [10] There is currently a lack of prior reports describing trichome gland phenotype in relationship to Cannabis flower development in situ in Cannabis.
Automatic assessment of plant trichomes
The microscopic nature of trichomes complicates manual observation, but recent advances in automatic methods to assess trichomes have enabled increasingly powerful analyses. Glandular trichomes of tomato were sorted by autofluorescent flow cytometry to separate young and mature trichomes prior to transcriptome analysis of the gland contents. [15] Failmezger et al. [16] estimated the 3D leaf surface of Arabidopsis thaliana from 2D microscopy image stacks to characterize trichome growth patterns. Mirnezami et al. [17] investigated image processing to automatically count soybean trichomes from microscopy images. Deep learning has also been applied to trichome analysis to estimate the "hairiness" of cotton leaves as a metric of harvest readiness. [18] No previous studies have assessed trichome maturation in Cannabis using these or similar approaches; thus, metrics that could be used to predict when Cannabis inflorescences have achieved a maturation stage indicative of optimal cannabinoid content have not been established.
Contributions
In this work, we document changes in trichome gland head phenotypes over the flowering period and compare observations of the trichome glands and the supporting bract tissue. We present a computer vision pipeline to automatically segment and classify trichome gland head phenotypes and validate the pipeline by experiments that induce trichome degradation and alter trichome development. We also explore novel fluorescent trichome gland head traits induced under UV irradiation that were observed from whole glands, as opposed to previous studies that explore fluorescence in a confocal manner. [12,31] We acquired data using conventional optics such that our analysis was carried out in situ and yielded same-day results. We discuss our results in the context of trichome development and Cannabis flower maturation in four Cannabis strains (genotypes) and conclude with comments on the feasibility of on-site imaging technology to automate quality aspects during the Cannabis cultivation process in the greenhouse. In the following sections, we first describe plant materials, plant propagation, and computational analysis, then present results and conclude with the interpretation of results in the discussion.
Materials and methods
Plant materials
References
Notes
This presentation is faithful to the original, with only a few minor changes to presentation. Some grammar and punctuation was cleaned up to improve readability. In some cases important information was missing from the references, and that information was added. No other changes were made in accordance with the "NoDerivatives" portion of the license.
