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==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
For millennia, ''Cannabis'' has been cultivated for medicinal, recreational, and industrial purposes.<ref name="GrinspoonHist05">{{cite web |url=http://www.maps.org/research-archive/mmj/grinspoon_history_cannabis_medicine.pdf |format=PDF |title=History of Cannabis as a Medicine |author=Grinspoon, L. |publisher=MAPS |date=16 August 2005}}</ref> Despite mounting evidence for the legitimate medical utility of cannabis products and their principal [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] constituents<ref name="WhitingCanna15">{{cite journal |title=Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and meta-analysis |journal=JAMA |author=Whiting, P.F.; Wolff, R.F.; Deshpande, S. et al. |volume=313 |issue=24 |pages=2456–73 |year=2015 |doi=10.1001/jama.2015.6358 |pmid=26103030}}</ref><ref name="NASEM_TheHealth17">{{cite book |title=The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research |author=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine |publisher=National Academies Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780309453073 |doi=10.17226/24625}}</ref>, they remain classified as [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule I]] controlled substances by the U.S. federal government. Nonetheless, public opinion on legal cannabis has changed dramatically in recent years<ref name="GeigerSupport16">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/10/12/support-for-marijuana-legalization-continues-to-rise |title=Support for marijuana legalization continues to rise |author=Geiger, A. |work=Fact Tank |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=12 October 2016 |accessdate=29 September 2017}}</ref>, and a majority of U.S. states now allow legal access to [[Cannabis (drug)|medical cannabis]] for approved patients, with several states also allowing recreational adult-use.<ref name="ComptonUseOf17">{{cite journal |title=Use of Marijuana for Medical Purposes Among Adults in the United States |journal=JAMA |author=Compton, W.M.; Han, B.; Highes, A. et al. |volume=317 |issue=2 |pages=209–11 |year=2017 |doi=10.1001/jama.2016.18900 |pmid=27992636}}</ref> This dynamic legal landscape has given rise to a rapidly growing legal cannabis industry that offers a wide variety of products to consumers. | For millennia, ''Cannabis'' has been cultivated for medicinal, recreational, and industrial purposes.<ref name="GrinspoonHist05">{{cite web |url=http://www.maps.org/research-archive/mmj/grinspoon_history_cannabis_medicine.pdf |format=PDF |title=History of Cannabis as a Medicine |author=Grinspoon, L. |publisher=MAPS |date=16 August 2005}}</ref> Despite mounting evidence for the legitimate medical utility of cannabis products and their principal [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] constituents<ref name="WhitingCanna15">{{cite journal |title=Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and meta-analysis |journal=JAMA |author=Whiting, P.F.; Wolff, R.F.; Deshpande, S. et al. |volume=313 |issue=24 |pages=2456–73 |year=2015 |doi=10.1001/jama.2015.6358 |pmid=26103030}}</ref><ref name="NASEM_TheHealth17">{{cite book |title=The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research |author=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine |publisher=National Academies Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780309453073 |doi=10.17226/24625}}</ref>, they remain classified as [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule I]] controlled substances by the U.S. federal government. Nonetheless, public opinion on legal cannabis has changed dramatically in recent years<ref name="GeigerSupport16">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/10/12/support-for-marijuana-legalization-continues-to-rise |title=Support for marijuana legalization continues to rise |author=Geiger, A. |work=Fact Tank |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=12 October 2016 |accessdate=29 September 2017}}</ref>, and a majority of U.S. states now allow legal access to [[Cannabis (drug)|medical cannabis]] for approved patients, with several states also allowing recreational adult-use.<ref name="ComptonUseOf17">{{cite journal |title=Use of Marijuana for Medical Purposes Among Adults in the United States |journal=JAMA |author=Compton, W.M.; Han, B.; Highes, A. et al. |volume=317 |issue=2 |pages=209–11 |year=2017 |doi=10.1001/jama.2016.18900 |pmid=27992636}}</ref><ref name="BarryAPublic16">{{cite journal |title=A Public Health Framework for Legalized Retail Marijuana Based on the US Experience: Avoiding a New Tobacco Industry |journal=PLoS Medicine |author=Barry, R.A.; Glantz, S. |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=e1002131 |year=2016 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002131 |pmid=27676176 |pmc=PMC5038957}}</ref> This dynamic legal landscape has given rise to a rapidly growing legal cannabis industry that offers a wide variety of products to consumers. | ||
Because the core product of this burgeoning industry contains multiple compounds with psychoactive and medicinal properties<ref name="AndreCannabis16">{{cite journal |title=''Cannabis sativa'': The plant of the thousand and one molecules |journal=Frontiers in Plant Medicine |author=Andre, C.M.; Hausman, J.-F.; Guerriero, G. |volume=7 |pages=19 |year=2016 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2016.00019 |pmid=26870049 |pmc=PMC4740396}}</ref>, it is imperative that the major biochemical constituents of cannabis are accurately quantified, and the results made accessible to consumers. Because recreational cannabis products may differ substantially from cannabis grown for federally-sanctioned research<ref name="VergaraComp17">{{cite journal |title=Compromised External Validity: Federally Produced Cannabis Does Not Reflect Legal Markets |journal=Scientific Reports |author=Vergara, D.; Bidwell, L.C.; Gaudino, R. et al. |volume=7 |pages=46528 |year=2017 |doi=10.1038/srep46528 |pmid=28422145 |pmc=PMC5395929}}</ref> or found on the black market<ref name="MorganImpact10">{{cite journal |title=Impact of cannabidiol on the acute memory and psychotomimetic effects of smoked cannabis: Naturalistic study |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |author=Morgan, C.J.; Schafer, G.; Freeman, T.P. et al. |volume=197 |pages=4 |year=2010 |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077503 |pmid=20884951}}</ref>, there is a particular need to study the commercial cannabis being consumed today by millions of adults in states allowing legal adult-use consumption. | |||
The adoption of universal industry testing standards will be crucial for comparing data across the many existing testing laboratories. However, standardized procedures have yet to be adopted, and controversy exists about whether all laboratories are accurately measuring and reporting cannabinoid content.<ref name="Coughlin-BogueLeafly17">{{cite web |url=https://www.leafly.com/news/industry/leafly-investigation-washingtons-top-cannabis-lab-inflating-thc-numbers |title=Leafly Investigation: Is Washington's Top Cannabis Lab Inflating THC Numbers? |author=Coughlin-Bogue, T. |work=Leafly |date=28 April 2017 |accessdate=13 September 2017}}</ref> Most of these labs were not established quality control labs with a track record of testing food or pharmaceutical products, but rather started specifically to focus on cannabis products. At present, there is limited published data<ref name="VergaraComp17" /> on the content of commercial cannabis products in the U.S., including quantification of potential differences in the measurements reported across these testing laboratories. Reliable testing data will also shed light on questions important to consumers and regulators, such as whether cannabinoid levels are changing over time or differ systematically between commercial products. | |||
To investigate these concerns, we analyzed a large dataset from Washington State’s seed-to-sale traceability system. This dataset comprises hundreds of thousands of measurements of the principal cannabinoids in commercial cannabis, including tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). These measurements are available for commercial products tested across all state-licensed laboratories since 2014, which allowed us to assess the cannabinoid composition of commercial products between laboratories, over time, and across strains. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 19:14, 30 March 2019
| Full article title |
The cannabinoid content of legal cannabis in Washington State varies systematically across testing facilities and popular consumer products |
|---|---|
| Journal | Scientific Reports |
| Author(s) | Jikomes, Nick; Zoorob, Michael |
| Author affiliation(s) | Leafly Holdings, Harvard University |
| Primary contact | Email: Contact author via journal |
| Year published | 2018 |
| Volume and issue | 8 |
| Page(s) | 4519 |
| DOI | 10.1038/s41598-018-22755-2 |
| ISSN | 2045-2322 |
| Distribution license | Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International |
| Website | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22755-2 |
| Download | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22755-2.pdf (PDF) |
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Abstract
The majority of adults in the U.S. now have state-legal access to medical or recreational cannabis products, despite their federal prohibition. Given the wide array of pharmacologically active compounds in these products, it is essential that their biochemical profile is measured and reported to consumers, which requires accurate laboratory testing. However, no universal standards for laboratory testing protocols currently exist, and there is controversy as to whether all reported results are legitimate. To investigate these concerns, we analyzed a publicly available seed-to-sale traceability dataset from Washington State containing measurements of the cannabinoid content of legal cannabis products from state-certified laboratories. Consistent with previous work, we found that commercial Cannabis strains fall into three broad chemotypes defined by the tetrahydrocannabinol:cannabidiol (THC:CBD) ratio. Moreover, we documented systematic differences in the cannabinoid content reported by different laboratories, relative stability in cannabinoid levels of commercial flower and concentrates over time, and differences between popular commercial strains. Importantly, interlab differences in cannabinoid reporting persisted even after controlling for plausible confounds. Our results underscore the need for standardized laboratory methodologies in the legal cannabis industry and provide a framework for quantitatively assessing laboratory quality.
Introduction
For millennia, Cannabis has been cultivated for medicinal, recreational, and industrial purposes.[1] Despite mounting evidence for the legitimate medical utility of cannabis products and their principal psychoactive constituents[2][3], they remain classified as Schedule I controlled substances by the U.S. federal government. Nonetheless, public opinion on legal cannabis has changed dramatically in recent years[4], and a majority of U.S. states now allow legal access to medical cannabis for approved patients, with several states also allowing recreational adult-use.[5][6] This dynamic legal landscape has given rise to a rapidly growing legal cannabis industry that offers a wide variety of products to consumers.
Because the core product of this burgeoning industry contains multiple compounds with psychoactive and medicinal properties[7], it is imperative that the major biochemical constituents of cannabis are accurately quantified, and the results made accessible to consumers. Because recreational cannabis products may differ substantially from cannabis grown for federally-sanctioned research[8] or found on the black market[9], there is a particular need to study the commercial cannabis being consumed today by millions of adults in states allowing legal adult-use consumption.
The adoption of universal industry testing standards will be crucial for comparing data across the many existing testing laboratories. However, standardized procedures have yet to be adopted, and controversy exists about whether all laboratories are accurately measuring and reporting cannabinoid content.[10] Most of these labs were not established quality control labs with a track record of testing food or pharmaceutical products, but rather started specifically to focus on cannabis products. At present, there is limited published data[8] on the content of commercial cannabis products in the U.S., including quantification of potential differences in the measurements reported across these testing laboratories. Reliable testing data will also shed light on questions important to consumers and regulators, such as whether cannabinoid levels are changing over time or differ systematically between commercial products.
To investigate these concerns, we analyzed a large dataset from Washington State’s seed-to-sale traceability system. This dataset comprises hundreds of thousands of measurements of the principal cannabinoids in commercial cannabis, including tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). These measurements are available for commercial products tested across all state-licensed laboratories since 2014, which allowed us to assess the cannabinoid composition of commercial products between laboratories, over time, and across strains.
References
- ↑ Grinspoon, L. (16 August 2005). "History of Cannabis as a Medicine" (PDF). MAPS. http://www.maps.org/research-archive/mmj/grinspoon_history_cannabis_medicine.pdf.
- ↑ Whiting, P.F.; Wolff, R.F.; Deshpande, S. et al. (2015). "Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and meta-analysis". JAMA 313 (24): 2456–73. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6358. PMID 26103030.
- ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research. National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/24625. ISBN 9780309453073.
- ↑ Geiger, A. (12 October 2016). "Support for marijuana legalization continues to rise". Fact Tank. Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/10/12/support-for-marijuana-legalization-continues-to-rise. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
- ↑ Compton, W.M.; Han, B.; Highes, A. et al. (2017). "Use of Marijuana for Medical Purposes Among Adults in the United States". JAMA 317 (2): 209–11. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.18900. PMID 27992636.
- ↑ Barry, R.A.; Glantz, S. (2016). "A Public Health Framework for Legalized Retail Marijuana Based on the US Experience: Avoiding a New Tobacco Industry". PLoS Medicine 13 (9): e1002131. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002131. PMC PMC5038957. PMID 27676176. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5038957.
- ↑ Andre, C.M.; Hausman, J.-F.; Guerriero, G. (2016). "Cannabis sativa: The plant of the thousand and one molecules". Frontiers in Plant Medicine 7: 19. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.00019. PMC PMC4740396. PMID 26870049. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4740396.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Vergara, D.; Bidwell, L.C.; Gaudino, R. et al. (2017). "Compromised External Validity: Federally Produced Cannabis Does Not Reflect Legal Markets". Scientific Reports 7: 46528. doi:10.1038/srep46528. PMC PMC5395929. PMID 28422145. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5395929.
- ↑ Morgan, C.J.; Schafer, G.; Freeman, T.P. et al. (2010). "Impact of cannabidiol on the acute memory and psychotomimetic effects of smoked cannabis: Naturalistic study". The British Journal of Psychiatry 197: 4. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077503. PMID 20884951.
- ↑ Coughlin-Bogue, T. (28 April 2017). "Leafly Investigation: Is Washington's Top Cannabis Lab Inflating THC Numbers?". Leafly. https://www.leafly.com/news/industry/leafly-investigation-washingtons-top-cannabis-lab-inflating-thc-numbers. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
Notes
This presentation is faithful to the original, with only a few minor changes to presentation. Some grammar and punctuation was cleaned up to improve readability. In some cases important information was missing from the references, and that information was added.
