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''Cannabis sativa'' L. is the most cultivated, trafficked, and consumed illicit drug in the world.<ref name="AlmeidaReview08">{{cite journal |title=Review: Executive functioning and cannabis use |journal=Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry |author=Almeida, P.P.; Novaes, M.A.F.P.; Bressan, R.A. et al. |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=69–76 |year=2008 |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462008000100013 |pmid=18373021}}</ref><ref name="UNODCWorld17">{{cite book |url=https://www.unodc.org/wdr2017/index.html |title=World Drug Report 2017 |author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime |publisher=United Nations |year=2017 |isbn=9789211482928}}</ref> The United Nations classifies cannabis as all drugs derived from the plant ''Cannabis sativa'' (Cannabaceae) containing the substance [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|∆-9-tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC). THC is the intoxicant compound of the plant and is responsible for the classification of ''C. sativa'' as an illicit drug. The plant also produces [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), a compound that has been studied for pharmaceutical and medical purposes.
''Cannabis sativa'' L. is the most cultivated, trafficked, and consumed illicit drug in the world.<ref name="AlmeidaReview08">{{cite journal |title=Review: Executive functioning and cannabis use |journal=Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry |author=Almeida, P.P.; Novaes, M.A.F.P.; Bressan, R.A. et al. |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=69–76 |year=2008 |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462008000100013 |pmid=18373021}}</ref><ref name="UNODCWorld17">{{cite book |url=https://www.unodc.org/wdr2017/index.html |title=World Drug Report 2017 |author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime |publisher=United Nations |year=2017 |isbn=9789211482928}}</ref> The United Nations classifies cannabis as all drugs derived from the plant ''Cannabis sativa'' (Cannabaceae) containing the substance [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|∆-9-tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC). THC is the intoxicant compound of the plant and is responsible for the classification of ''C. sativa'' as an illicit drug. The plant also produces [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), a compound that has been studied for pharmaceutical and medical purposes.


Aiming to increase the concentration of THC in the plant, several [[Cannabis strains|artificial hybrids]] such as “Royal AK47,” “Sharksbreath,” “Black Widow,” “Haze Prata,” “Kali Mist,” and “Jack the Ripper” have been developed through genetic selection and breeding of ''C. sativa''.<ref name="SmallAPract76">{{cite journal |title=A practical and natural taxonomy for cannabis |journal=Taxon |author=Small, E.; Cronquist, A. |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=405–35 |year=1976} |doi=10.2307/1220524}</ref><ref name="vanBakelTheDraft11">{{cite journal |title=The draft genome and transcriptome of Cannabis sativa |journal=Genome Biology |author=van Bakel, H.; Stout, J.M.; Cote, A.G. et al. |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=R102 |year=2011 |doi=10.1186/gb-2011-12-10-r102 |pmid=22014239 |pmc=PMC3359589}}</ref><ref name="OhTwo16">{{cite journal |title=Two complete chloroplast genome sequences of Cannabis sativa varieties |journal=Mitochondrial DNA Part A |author=Oh, H.; Seo, B.; Lee, S. et al. |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=2835–7 |year=2016 |doi=10.3109/19401736.2015.1053117 |pmid=26104156}}</ref> On the other hand, varieties such as “Cheungsam” were developed aiming at a THC/CBD ratio that is lower than 1.0 for the medicinal use of ''Cannabis''<ref name="ParkProt12">{{cite journal |title=Proteomic profiling of hempseed proteins from Cheungsam |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta |author=Park, S.K.; Seo, J.B.; Lee, M.Y. |volume=1824 |issue=2 |pages=374-82 |year=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.10.005 |pmid=22040604}}</ref>, while [[Hemp|hemp-based]] strains such as “Félina 34,” “Futura 77,” “Kompolti,” and “Carmagnola” were developed for cultivation aiming at the production of fibers.<ref name="StruikAgron00">{{cite journal |title=Agronomy of fibre hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) in Europe |journal=Industrial Crops and Products |author=Struik, P.C.; Amaduccia, S.; Bullard, M.J. et al. |volume=11 |issue=2–3 |pages=107–18 |year=2000 |doi=10.1016/S0926-6690(99)00048-5}}</ref> Since the morphological differentiation among all those varieties is very difficult, genetic strategies are necessary for their characterization with [[Forensic science|forensic]] purposes.
Aiming to increase the concentration of THC in the plant, several [[Cannabis strains|artificial hybrids]] such as “Royal AK47,” “Sharksbreath,” “Black Widow,” “Haze Prata,” “Kali Mist,” and “Jack the Ripper” have been developed through genetic selection and breeding of ''C. sativa''.<ref name="SmallAPract76">{{cite journal |title=A practical and natural taxonomy for cannabis |journal=Taxon |author=Small, E.; Cronquist, A. |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=405–35 |year=1976 |doi=10.2307/1220524}}</ref><ref name="vanBakelTheDraft11">{{cite journal |title=The draft genome and transcriptome of Cannabis sativa |journal=Genome Biology |author=van Bakel, H.; Stout, J.M.; Cote, A.G. et al. |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=R102 |year=2011 |doi=10.1186/gb-2011-12-10-r102 |pmid=22014239 |pmc=PMC3359589}}</ref><ref name="OhTwo16">{{cite journal |title=Two complete chloroplast genome sequences of Cannabis sativa varieties |journal=Mitochondrial DNA Part A |author=Oh, H.; Seo, B.; Lee, S. et al. |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=2835–7 |year=2016 |doi=10.3109/19401736.2015.1053117 |pmid=26104156}}</ref> On the other hand, varieties such as “Cheungsam” were developed aiming at a THC/CBD ratio that is lower than 1.0 for the medicinal use of ''Cannabis''<ref name="ParkProt12">{{cite journal |title=Proteomic profiling of hempseed proteins from Cheungsam |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta |author=Park, S.K.; Seo, J.B.; Lee, M.Y. |volume=1824 |issue=2 |pages=374-82 |year=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.10.005 |pmid=22040604}}</ref>, while [[Hemp|hemp-based]] strains such as “Félina 34,” “Futura 77,” “Kompolti,” and “Carmagnola” were developed for cultivation aiming at the production of fibers.<ref name="StruikAgron00">{{cite journal |title=Agronomy of fibre hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) in Europe |journal=Industrial Crops and Products |author=Struik, P.C.; Amaduccia, S.; Bullard, M.J. et al. |volume=11 |issue=2–3 |pages=107–18 |year=2000 |doi=10.1016/S0926-6690(99)00048-5}}</ref> Since the morphological differentiation among all those varieties is very difficult, genetic strategies are necessary for their characterization with [[Forensic science|forensic]] purposes.


[[DNA profiling|Forensic genetics]] arose as a result of the union between legal medicine and criminalistics and is most commonly linked to the use of human DNA in criminal investigations. However, the evolution of our society significantly enlarged its framework, and forensic genetics now covers a much wider range of purposes, providing subsidiary evidence in investigations involving cases such as biopiracy, bioterrorism, identification of fraudulent food composition, and identification of illicit drugs.<ref name="ArenasForensic17">{{cite journal |title=Forensic genetics and genomics: Much more than just a human affair |journal=PLoS Genetics |author=Arenas, M.; Pereira, F.; Oliveira, M. et al. |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=e1006960 |year=2017 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006960 |pmid=28934201 |pmc=PMC5608170}}</ref>
[[DNA profiling|Forensic genetics]] arose as a result of the union between legal medicine and criminalistics and is most commonly linked to the use of human DNA in criminal investigations. However, the evolution of our society significantly enlarged its framework, and forensic genetics now covers a much wider range of purposes, providing subsidiary evidence in investigations involving cases such as biopiracy, bioterrorism, identification of fraudulent food composition, and identification of illicit drugs.<ref name="ArenasForensic17">{{cite journal |title=Forensic genetics and genomics: Much more than just a human affair |journal=PLoS Genetics |author=Arenas, M.; Pereira, F.; Oliveira, M. et al. |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=e1006960 |year=2017 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006960 |pmid=28934201 |pmc=PMC5608170}}</ref>


Besides forensic investigations aiming to differentiate drug and non-drug varieties of ''Cannabis'', forensic genetics can be very useful for determining the geographic origin of seeds/plants, and for identification of [[Legality of cannabis|traffic routes]] and illegal plantations. Molecular markers employed for genetic studies in ''C. sativa'' have shown that it is possible to correlate the diversity of gene pools with their geographical origin [9,10,11,12], suggesting that these biotechnological tools can be used for forensic purposes.
Besides forensic investigations aiming to differentiate drug and non-drug varieties of ''Cannabis'', forensic genetics can be very useful for determining the geographic origin of seeds/plants, and for identification of [[Legality of cannabis|traffic routes]] and illegal plantations. Molecular markers employed for genetic studies in ''C. sativa'' have shown that it is possible to correlate the diversity of gene pools with their geographical origin<ref name="FaetiGenetic96">{{cite journal |title=Genetic diversity of Cannabis sativa germplasm based on RAPD markers |journal=Plant Breeding |author=Faeti, V.;  Mandolino, G.; Ranalli, P. |volume=115 |issue=5 |pages=367–70 |year=1996 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0523.1996.tb00935.x}}</ref><ref name="KojomaDNA02">{{cite journal |title=DNA fingerprinting of Cannabis sativa using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) amplification |journal=Planta Medica |author=Kojoma, M.; Iida, O.; Makino, Y. |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=60–3 |year=2002 |doi=10.1055/s-2002-19875 |pmid=11842329}}</ref><ref name="GilmoreOrganelle07">{{cite journal |title=Organelle DNA haplotypes reflect crop-use characteristics and geographic origins of Cannabis sativa |journal=Forensic Science International |author=Gilmore, S.; Peakall, R.; Robertson, J. |volume=172 |issue=2–3 |pages=179–90 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.10.025 |pmid=17293071}}</ref><ref name="HoustonEval16">{{cite journal |title=Evaluation of a 13-loci STR multiplex system for Cannabis sativa genetic identification |journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine |author=Houston, R.; Birck, M.; Hughes-Stamm, S. et al. |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=635–47 |year=2016 |doi=10.1007/s00414-015-1296-x |pmid=26661945}}</ref>, suggesting that these biotechnological tools can be used for forensic purposes.


Taking into account the social impacts of cannabis traffic and its abuse, as well as recent advances in biotechnological methods, it should be expected that scientific studies on forensic genetics related to this species would have significantly increased in recent decades. An increased number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses about the medical and psychological effects of ''Cannabis'' have been launched recently in the specialized literature [13,14,15,16]. However, review studies focusing on the general patterns of scientific research of this species reveal trends and limitations are lacking. Such analysis might help scientists and students to identify overall research needs, to detect the scientific areas in evidence concerning ''Cannabis'' studies, and to find reputable research centers for scientific interchange and collaboration.
Taking into account the social impacts of cannabis traffic and its abuse, as well as recent advances in biotechnological methods, it should be expected that scientific studies on forensic genetics related to this species would have significantly increased in recent decades. An increased number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses about the medical and psychological effects of ''Cannabis'' have been launched recently in the specialized literature [13,14,15,16]. However, review studies focusing on the general patterns of scientific research of this species reveal trends and limitations are lacking. Such analysis might help scientists and students to identify overall research needs, to detect the scientific areas in evidence concerning ''Cannabis'' studies, and to find reputable research centers for scientific interchange and collaboration.

Revision as of 17:08, 19 April 2019

Full article title A bibliometric analysis of Cannabis publications: Six decades of research
and a gap on studies with the plant
Journal Publications
Author(s) Matielo, Christiane B.D.; Sarzi, Deise S.; Justolin, Beatriz; Lemos, Rafael P.M.;
Camargo, Flavio A.O.; Stefenon, Valdir M.
Author affiliation(s) Universidade Federal do Pampa, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Primary contact Email: valdirstefeno at unipampa dot edu dot br
Year published 2018
Volume and issue 6(4)
Page(s) 40
DOI 10.3390/publications6040040
ISSN 2304-6775
Distribution license Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
Website https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6775/6/4/40/htm
Download https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6775/6/4/40/pdf (PDF)

Abstract

In this study we performed a bibliometric analysis focusing on the general patterns of scientific publications about Cannabis, revealing their trends and limitations. Publications related to Cannabis, released from 1960 to 2017, were retrieved from the Scopus database using six search terms. The search term “Genetics” returned 53.4% of publications, while “forensic genetics” and “traceability” represented 2.3% and 0.1% of the publications, respectively. However, 43.1% of the studies were not directly related to Cannabis and, in some cases, Cannabis was just used as an example in the text. A significant increase in publications was observed after 2001, with most of the publications coming from Europe, followed by North America. Although the term "Cannabis" was found in the title, abstract, or keywords of 1284 publications, we detected a historical gap in studies on the plant. We expect that increasing interest in this issue and the rise of new biotechnological advances will lead to the development of new studies. This study will help scientists identify overall research needs, detect the scientific areas in evidence concerning Cannabis studies, and find excellent centers of investigation for scientific interchange and collaboration.

Keywords: biotechnological advances, forensic science, hemp, genetics, marijuana, traceability

Introduction

Cannabis sativa L. is the most cultivated, trafficked, and consumed illicit drug in the world.[1][2] The United Nations classifies cannabis as all drugs derived from the plant Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) containing the substance ∆-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC is the intoxicant compound of the plant and is responsible for the classification of C. sativa as an illicit drug. The plant also produces cannabidiol (CBD), a compound that has been studied for pharmaceutical and medical purposes.

Aiming to increase the concentration of THC in the plant, several artificial hybrids such as “Royal AK47,” “Sharksbreath,” “Black Widow,” “Haze Prata,” “Kali Mist,” and “Jack the Ripper” have been developed through genetic selection and breeding of C. sativa.[3][4][5] On the other hand, varieties such as “Cheungsam” were developed aiming at a THC/CBD ratio that is lower than 1.0 for the medicinal use of Cannabis[6], while hemp-based strains such as “Félina 34,” “Futura 77,” “Kompolti,” and “Carmagnola” were developed for cultivation aiming at the production of fibers.[7] Since the morphological differentiation among all those varieties is very difficult, genetic strategies are necessary for their characterization with forensic purposes.

Forensic genetics arose as a result of the union between legal medicine and criminalistics and is most commonly linked to the use of human DNA in criminal investigations. However, the evolution of our society significantly enlarged its framework, and forensic genetics now covers a much wider range of purposes, providing subsidiary evidence in investigations involving cases such as biopiracy, bioterrorism, identification of fraudulent food composition, and identification of illicit drugs.[8]

Besides forensic investigations aiming to differentiate drug and non-drug varieties of Cannabis, forensic genetics can be very useful for determining the geographic origin of seeds/plants, and for identification of traffic routes and illegal plantations. Molecular markers employed for genetic studies in C. sativa have shown that it is possible to correlate the diversity of gene pools with their geographical origin[9][10][11][12], suggesting that these biotechnological tools can be used for forensic purposes.

Taking into account the social impacts of cannabis traffic and its abuse, as well as recent advances in biotechnological methods, it should be expected that scientific studies on forensic genetics related to this species would have significantly increased in recent decades. An increased number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses about the medical and psychological effects of Cannabis have been launched recently in the specialized literature [13,14,15,16]. However, review studies focusing on the general patterns of scientific research of this species reveal trends and limitations are lacking. Such analysis might help scientists and students to identify overall research needs, to detect the scientific areas in evidence concerning Cannabis studies, and to find reputable research centers for scientific interchange and collaboration.

Despite the importance of Cannabis for public health and security, no review or bibliometric study about the publications on this species is available in the specialized literature. In order to fill this gap, we intended to qualitatively scrutinize the patterns of scientific publications (research articles and review papers) related to Cannabis in the last six decades. In this study, we examined the main areas of interest of the researchers studying Cannabis around the world and the existing gaps concerning the current demands of research, with particular attention to forensic genetics.

References

  1. ↑ Almeida, P.P.; Novaes, M.A.F.P.; Bressan, R.A. et al. (2008). "Review: Executive functioning and cannabis use". Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry 30 (1): 69–76. doi:10.1590/S1516-44462008000100013. PMID 18373021. 
  2. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2017). World Drug Report 2017. United Nations. ISBN 9789211482928. https://www.unodc.org/wdr2017/index.html. 
  3. ↑ Small, E.; Cronquist, A. (1976). "A practical and natural taxonomy for cannabis". Taxon 25 (4): 405–35. doi:10.2307/1220524. 
  4. ↑ van Bakel, H.; Stout, J.M.; Cote, A.G. et al. (2011). "The draft genome and transcriptome of Cannabis sativa". Genome Biology 12 (10): R102. doi:10.1186/gb-2011-12-10-r102. PMC PMC3359589. PMID 22014239. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3359589. 
  5. ↑ Oh, H.; Seo, B.; Lee, S. et al. (2016). "Two complete chloroplast genome sequences of Cannabis sativa varieties". Mitochondrial DNA Part A 27 (4): 2835–7. doi:10.3109/19401736.2015.1053117. PMID 26104156. 
  6. ↑ Park, S.K.; Seo, J.B.; Lee, M.Y. (2012). "Proteomic profiling of hempseed proteins from Cheungsam". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1824 (2): 374-82. doi:10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.10.005. PMID 22040604. 
  7. ↑ Struik, P.C.; Amaduccia, S.; Bullard, M.J. et al. (2000). "Agronomy of fibre hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in Europe". Industrial Crops and Products 11 (2–3): 107–18. doi:10.1016/S0926-6690(99)00048-5. 
  8. ↑ Arenas, M.; Pereira, F.; Oliveira, M. et al. (2017). "Forensic genetics and genomics: Much more than just a human affair". PLoS Genetics 13 (9): e1006960. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006960. PMC PMC5608170. PMID 28934201. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5608170. 
  9. ↑ Faeti, V.; Mandolino, G.; Ranalli, P. (1996). "Genetic diversity of Cannabis sativa germplasm based on RAPD markers". Plant Breeding 115 (5): 367–70. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0523.1996.tb00935.x. 
  10. ↑ Kojoma, M.; Iida, O.; Makino, Y. (2002). "DNA fingerprinting of Cannabis sativa using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) amplification". Planta Medica 68 (1): 60–3. doi:10.1055/s-2002-19875. PMID 11842329. 
  11. ↑ Gilmore, S.; Peakall, R.; Robertson, J. (2007). "Organelle DNA haplotypes reflect crop-use characteristics and geographic origins of Cannabis sativa". Forensic Science International 172 (2–3): 179–90. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.10.025. PMID 17293071. 
  12. ↑ Houston, R.; Birck, M.; Hughes-Stamm, S. et al. (2016). "Evaluation of a 13-loci STR multiplex system for Cannabis sativa genetic identification". International Journal of Legal Medicine 130 (3): 635–47. doi:10.1007/s00414-015-1296-x. PMID 26661945. 

Notes

This presentation is faithful to the original, with only a few minor changes to presentation. Some grammar and punctuation was cleaned up to improve readability. In some cases important information was missing from the references, and that information was added.

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