Difference between revisions of "Template:Past, Present, and Future of Cannabis Laboratory Testing and Regulation in the United States/Laboratory testing of cannabis/Methods and guidelines/Cannabinoid testing"

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Quantifying cannabinoids for label accuracy is a major goal of testing, though calculation and testing processes may vary slightly from state to state. Despite any differences, laboratorians generally agree that when testing for cannabinoids such as THC and CBD, as well as their respective biosynthetic precursors THCA and CBDA, the methodology used must be scrutinized. The naturally occurring THCA of cannabis isn't psychoactive; it requires [[decarboxylation]] (a chemical reaction induced by drying/heating that releases carbon dioxide) to convert itself into the psychoactive cannabinoid THC. Chemical calculations show that the process of decarboxylation results in approximately 87.7 percent of the THCA's mass converting to THC, with the other 12.3 percent bubbling off as CO<sub>2</sub> gas.<ref name="CAWhy1">{{cite web |url=http://conflabs.com/why-0-877/ |title=Why 0.877? |publisher=Confidence Analytics |date=10 February 2016 |accessdate=16 February 2017}}</ref> The problem with this in the testing domain is [[gas chromatography]] (GC) involves heating the sample solution. If you, the lab technician, require precise numbers of both THCA and THC, then GC analysis poses the risk of under-reporting THC total values.<ref name="APHLGuide16">{{cite web |url=https://www.aphl.org/aboutAPHL/publications/Documents/EH-Guide-State-Med-Cannabis-052016.pdf |format=PDF |title=Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs |author=Association of Public Health Laboratories |pages=35 |date=May 2016 |accessdate=01 February 2017}}</ref> As such, [[Chromatography#Liquid chromatography|liquid chromatography]]-[[Chromatography detector|diode array detection]] (LC-DAD) may be required if a concise profile of all cannabinoids must be made, primarily because it provides environmental stability for them all during analysis. If GC is used, the analysis requires extra considerations such as sample derivatization.<ref name="APHLGuide16" /><ref name="CassidayTheHighs16">{{cite web |url=https://www.aocs.org/stay-informed/inform-magazine/featured-articles/the-highs-and-lows-of-cannabis-testing-october-2016 |title=The Highs and Lows of Cannabis Testing |author=Cassiday, L. |work=INFORM |publisher=American Oil Chemists' Society |date=October 2016 |accessdate=13 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="RigdonAccurateJuly15">{{cite web |url=http://blog.restek.com/?p=14961 |title=Accurate Quantification of Cannabinoid Acids by GC – Is it Possible? |author=Rigdon, A. |work=ChromaBLOGraphy |publisher=Restek Corporation |date=29 July 2015 |accessdate=16 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="RigdonAccurateSept15">{{cite web |url=http://blog.restek.com/?p=15135 |title=Accurate Quantification of Cannabinoid Acids and Neutrals by GC – Derivatives without Calculus |author=Rigdon, A. |work=ChromaBLOGraphy |publisher=Restek Corporation |date=09 September 2015 |accessdate=16 February 2017}}</ref>
Quantifying cannabinoids for label accuracy is a major goal of testing, though calculation and testing processes may vary slightly from state to state. Despite any differences, laboratorians generally agree that when testing for cannabinoids such as THC and CBD, as well as their respective biosynthetic precursors THCA and CBDA, the methodology used must be scrutinized. The naturally occurring THCA of cannabis isn't psychoactive; it requires [[decarboxylation]] (a chemical reaction induced by drying/heating that releases carbon dioxide) to convert itself into the psychoactive cannabinoid THC. Chemical calculations show that the process of decarboxylation results in approximately 87.7 percent of the THCA's mass converting to THC, with the other 12.3 percent bubbling off as CO<sub>2</sub> gas.<ref name="CAWhy1">{{cite web |url=https://www.conflabs.com/why-0-877/ |title=Why 0.877? |publisher=Confidence Analytics |date=10 February 2016 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref> The problem with this in the testing domain is [[gas chromatography]] (GC) involves heating the sample solution. If you, the lab technician, require precise numbers of both THCA and THC, then GC analysis poses the risk of under-reporting THC total values.<ref name="APHLGuide16">{{cite web |url=https://www.aphl.org/aboutAPHL/publications/Documents/EH-Guide-State-Med-Cannabis-052016.pdf |format=PDF |title=Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs |author=Association of Public Health Laboratories |pages=35 |date=May 2016 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref> As such, [[Chromatography#Liquid chromatography|liquid chromatography]]-[[Chromatography detector|diode array detection]] (LC-DAD) may be required if a concise profile of all cannabinoids must be made, primarily because it provides environmental stability for them all during analysis. If GC is used, the analysis requires extra considerations such as sample derivatization.<ref name="APHLGuide16" /><ref name="CassidayTheHighs16">{{cite web |url=https://www.aocs.org/stay-informed/inform-magazine/featured-articles/the-highs-and-lows-of-cannabis-testing-october-2016 |title=The Highs and Lows of Cannabis Testing |author=Cassiday, L. |work=INFORM |publisher=American Oil Chemists' Society |date=October 2016 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="RigdonAccurateJuly15">{{cite web |url=http://blog.restek.com/?p=14961 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301212605/http://blog.restek.com/?p=14961 |title=Accurate Quantification of Cannabinoid Acids by GC – Is it Possible? |author=Rigdon, A. |work=ChromaBLOGraphy |publisher=Restek Corporation |date=29 July 2015 |archivedate=01 March 2019 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="RigdonAccurateSept15">{{cite web |url=http://blog.restek.com/?p=15135 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406091114/https://blog.restek.com/?p=15135 |title=Accurate Quantification of Cannabinoid Acids and Neutrals by GC – Derivatives without Calculus |author=Rigdon, A. |work=ChromaBLOGraphy |publisher=Restek Corporation |date=09 September 2015 |archivedate=06 April 2018 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref>


The APHL briefly describes analysis methods of cannabinoids using both LC and GC on pages 31–32 of their May 2016 ''Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs''. They also point to New York Department of Health - Wadsworth Center's various guidance documents (MML-300, -301, and -303) for methodologies when testing sample types other than solids, particularly using [[high-performance liquid chromatography]] photodiode array detection (HPLC-PAD).<ref name="APHLGuide16" /><ref name="MML-300">{{cite web |url=https://www.wadsworth.org/sites/default/files/WebDoc/576578963/MML-300-01.pdf |format=PDF |title=Measurement of Phytocannabinoids using HPLC-PAD, NYS DOH MML-300 |author=Division of Environmental Health Sciences, Laboratory of Organic Analytical Chemistry |publisher=New York State Department of Health |pages=34 |date=03 November 2015 |accessdate=15 February 2017}}</ref> Also worth noting is that [[ASTM International|ASTM]]'s Subcommittee D37.03 is working on various standard methods for determining cannabinoid concentrations using different chromatography techniques<ref name="ASTMSubD37.03">{{cite web |url=https://www.astm.org/COMMIT/SUBCOMMIT/D3703.htm |title=Subcommittee D37.03 on Laboratory |publisher=ASTM International |accessdate=25 February 2020}}</ref>, while the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) has already developed a Standard Method Performance Requirement (SMPR) for analyzing cannabinoids in [[hemp]] (i.e., low THC cannabis varieties).<ref name="AOACNew19">{{cite web |url=https://www.aoac.org/news/aoac-cannabinoid-standard-in-usda-guidelines/ |title=New guidelines require laboratories to meet AOAC Standard Method Performance Requirements for Quantitation of Cannabinoids in Hemp |author=Association of Official Agricultural Chemists |work=AOAC News |date=12 November 2019 |accessdate=25 February 2020}}</ref> Overall, methods used in cannabinoid testing include<ref name="APHLGuide16" /><ref name="CassidayTheHighs16" /><ref name="MML-300" /><ref name="LeghissaDetection18">{{cite journal |title=Detection of cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites using gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy |journal=SSC Plus |author=Leghissa, A.; Smuts, J.; Qiu, C. et al. |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=37–42 |year=2018 |doi=10.1002/sscp.201700005}}</ref><ref name="SCCann16">{{cite web |url=http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/content/dam/sigma-aldrich/docs/Sigma-Aldrich/General_Information/1/cannabis-testing.pdf |format=PDF |title=Cannabis Testing: Quality You Can Trust |publisher=Sigma-Aldritch Co. LLC |date=2016 |accessdate=15 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="AdamsNear16">{{cite web |url=https://www.cannabisindustryjournal.com/column/near-infrared-gc-and-hplc-applications-in-cannabis-testing/ |title=Near Infrared, GC and HPLC Applications in Cannabis Testing |author=Adams, T.; Bertone, M. |work=Cannabis Industry Journal |publisher=Innovative Publishing Co. LLC |date=30 November 2016 |accessdate=15 February 2017}}</ref>:
The APHL briefly describes analysis methods of cannabinoids using both LC and GC on pages 31–32 of their May 2016 ''Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs''. They also point to New York Department of Health - Wadsworth Center's various guidance documents (MML-300, -301, and -303) for methodologies when testing sample types other than solids, particularly using [[high-performance liquid chromatography]] photodiode array detection (HPLC-PAD).<ref name="APHLGuide16" /><ref name="MML-300">{{cite web |url=https://www.wadsworth.org/sites/default/files/WebDoc/576578963/MML-300-01.pdf |format=PDF |title=Measurement of Phytocannabinoids using HPLC-PAD, NYS DOH MML-300 |author=Division of Environmental Health Sciences, Laboratory of Organic Analytical Chemistry |publisher=New York State Department of Health |pages=34 |date=03 November 2015 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref> Also worth noting is that [[ASTM International|ASTM]]'s Subcommittee D37.03 is working on various standard methods for determining cannabinoid concentrations using different chromatography techniques<ref name="ASTMSubD37.03">{{cite web |url=https://www.astm.org/COMMIT/SUBCOMMIT/D3703.htm |title=Subcommittee D37.03 on Laboratory |publisher=ASTM International |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref>, while the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) has already developed a Standard Method Performance Requirement (SMPR) for analyzing cannabinoids in [[hemp]] (i.e., low THC cannabis varieties).<ref name="AOACNew19">{{cite web |url=https://www.aoac.org/news/aoac-cannabinoid-standard-in-usda-guidelines/ |title=New guidelines require laboratories to meet AOAC Standard Method Performance Requirements for Quantitation of Cannabinoids in Hemp |author=Association of Official Agricultural Chemists |work=AOAC News |date=12 November 2019 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref> Overall, methods used in cannabinoid testing include<ref name="APHLGuide16" /><ref name="CassidayTheHighs16" /><ref name="MML-300" /><ref name="LeghissaDetection18">{{cite journal |title=Detection of cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites using gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy |journal=SSC Plus |author=Leghissa, A.; Smuts, J.; Qiu, C. et al. |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=37–42 |year=2018 |doi=10.1002/sscp.201700005}}</ref><ref name="SCCann16">{{cite web |url=https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/marketing/global/documents/116/856/cannabis-testing.pdf |format=PDF |title=Cannabis Testing: Quality You Can Trust |publisher=Sigma-Aldritch Co. LLC |date=2016 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="AdamsNear16">{{cite web |url=https://cannabisindustryjournal.com/column/near-infrared-gc-and-hplc-applications-in-cannabis-testing/ |title=Near Infrared, GC and HPLC Applications in Cannabis Testing |author=Adams, T.; Bertone, M. |work=Cannabis Industry Journal |publisher=Innovative Publishing Co. LLC |date=30 November 2016 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref>:


* [[Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy]] (FTIR; has limitations, such as requiring standard samples tested w/ other methods)
* [[Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy]] (FTIR; has limitations, such as requiring standard samples tested w/ other methods)
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* [[High-performance liquid chromatography#Pump pressure|Ultra-performance chromatography]] (UPC; newer technology w/ added benefits)
* [[High-performance liquid chromatography#Pump pressure|Ultra-performance chromatography]] (UPC; newer technology w/ added benefits)


Also worthy of note is recent investigation of viably using [[Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy|nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy]] as a more affordable and rapid solution to identifying cannabinoid contents and profiles of samples. Conferences<ref name="ZilerRecap19">{{cite web |url=https://www.spectralservice.de/recap-of-the-first-nmr-cannabis-meeting/?lang=en |title=Recap of the First NMR Cannabis Meeting |author=Zailer, E. |publisher=Spectral Service AG |date=02 January 2019}}</ref>, research<ref name="WangComp17">{{cite journal |title=Comparative Study of NMR Spectral Profiling for the Characterization and Authentication of Cannabis |journal=Journal of AOAC International |author=Wang, X.; Harrington, P.B.; Baugh, S.F. |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=1356–64 |year=2017 |doi=10.5740/jaoacint.17-0089 |pmid=28718398}}</ref><ref name="MarchettiUseOf19">{{cite journal |title=Use of <sup>13</sup>C-qNMR Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Non-Psychoactive Cannabinoids in Fibre-Type Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp) |journal=Molecules |author=Marchetti, L.; Brighenti, V.; Rossi, M.C. et al. |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1138 |year=2019 |doi=10.3390/molecules24061138}}</ref><ref name="SiudemRapid19">{{cite journal |title=Rapid evaluation of edible hemp oil quality using NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy |journal=Journal of Molecular Structure |author=Siudem, P.; Wawer, I.; Paradowska, K. |volume=1177 |pages=204–08 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.molstruc.2018.09.057}}</ref>, and articles<ref name="MayNMR17">{{cite web |url=https://www.analyticalcannabis.com/articles/nmr-spectroscopy-producing-a-chemical-fingerprint-of-cannabis-292728 |title=NMR Spectroscopy: Producing a chemical fingerprint of cannabis |author=May, M. |work=Analytical Cannabis |date=28 September 2017 |accessdate=21 June 2019}}</ref><ref name="BennettCanna18">{{cite web |url=https://www.leafly.com/news/science-tech/why-test-cannabis |title=Cannabis Testing Explained: What’s in Your Cannabis? |author=Bennett, P. |work=Leafly |date=31 December 2018 |accessdate=21 June 2019}}</ref><ref name="ConnCanna19">{{cite web |url=https://pittcon.org/cannabis-trends-in-analytical-research/ |title=Cannabis: Trends in Analytical Research |author=Conn, P. |publisher=The Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Inc |date=14 March 2019 |accessdate=21 June 2019}}</ref> over the last few years have advanced the use of NMR spectroscopy for cannabinoid analysis.
Also worthy of note is recent investigation of viably using [[Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy|nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy]] as a more affordable and rapid solution to identifying cannabinoid contents and profiles of samples. Conferences<ref name="ZilerRecap19">{{cite web |url=https://www.spectralservice.de/recap-of-the-first-nmr-cannabis-meeting/?lang=en |title=Recap of the First NMR Cannabis Meeting |author=Zailer, E. |publisher=Spectral Service AG |date=02 January 2019 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref>, research<ref name="WangComp17">{{cite journal |title=Comparative Study of NMR Spectral Profiling for the Characterization and Authentication of Cannabis |journal=Journal of AOAC International |author=Wang, X.; Harrington, P.B.; Baugh, S.F. |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=1356–64 |year=2017 |doi=10.5740/jaoacint.17-0089 |pmid=28718398}}</ref><ref name="MarchettiUseOf19">{{cite journal |title=Use of <sup>13</sup>C-qNMR Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Non-Psychoactive Cannabinoids in Fibre-Type Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp) |journal=Molecules |author=Marchetti, L.; Brighenti, V.; Rossi, M.C. et al. |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1138 |year=2019 |doi=10.3390/molecules24061138}}</ref><ref name="SiudemRapid19">{{cite journal |title=Rapid evaluation of edible hemp oil quality using NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy |journal=Journal of Molecular Structure |author=Siudem, P.; Wawer, I.; Paradowska, K. |volume=1177 |pages=204–08 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.molstruc.2018.09.057}}</ref>, and articles<ref name="MayNMR17">{{cite web |url=https://www.analyticalcannabis.com/articles/nmr-spectroscopy-producing-a-chemical-fingerprint-of-cannabis-292728 |title=NMR Spectroscopy: Producing a chemical fingerprint of cannabis |author=May, M. |work=Analytical Cannabis |date=28 September 2017 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="BennettCanna18">{{cite web |url=https://www.leafly.com/news/science-tech/why-test-cannabis |title=Cannabis Testing Explained: What’s in Your Cannabis? |author=Bennett, P. |work=Leafly |date=31 December 2018 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="ConnCanna19">{{cite web |url=https://pittcon.org/cannabis-trends-in-analytical-research/ |title=Cannabis: Trends in Analytical Research |author=Conn, P. |publisher=The Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Inc |date=14 March 2019 |accessdate=07 July 2021}}</ref> over the last few years have advanced the use of NMR spectroscopy for cannabinoid analysis.

Revision as of 19:00, 7 July 2021

Quantifying cannabinoids for label accuracy is a major goal of testing, though calculation and testing processes may vary slightly from state to state. Despite any differences, laboratorians generally agree that when testing for cannabinoids such as THC and CBD, as well as their respective biosynthetic precursors THCA and CBDA, the methodology used must be scrutinized. The naturally occurring THCA of cannabis isn't psychoactive; it requires decarboxylation (a chemical reaction induced by drying/heating that releases carbon dioxide) to convert itself into the psychoactive cannabinoid THC. Chemical calculations show that the process of decarboxylation results in approximately 87.7 percent of the THCA's mass converting to THC, with the other 12.3 percent bubbling off as CO2 gas.[1] The problem with this in the testing domain is gas chromatography (GC) involves heating the sample solution. If you, the lab technician, require precise numbers of both THCA and THC, then GC analysis poses the risk of under-reporting THC total values.[2] As such, liquid chromatography-diode array detection (LC-DAD) may be required if a concise profile of all cannabinoids must be made, primarily because it provides environmental stability for them all during analysis. If GC is used, the analysis requires extra considerations such as sample derivatization.[2][3][4][5]

The APHL briefly describes analysis methods of cannabinoids using both LC and GC on pages 31–32 of their May 2016 Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs. They also point to New York Department of Health - Wadsworth Center's various guidance documents (MML-300, -301, and -303) for methodologies when testing sample types other than solids, particularly using high-performance liquid chromatography photodiode array detection (HPLC-PAD).[2][6] Also worth noting is that ASTM's Subcommittee D37.03 is working on various standard methods for determining cannabinoid concentrations using different chromatography techniques[7], while the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) has already developed a Standard Method Performance Requirement (SMPR) for analyzing cannabinoids in hemp (i.e., low THC cannabis varieties).[8] Overall, methods used in cannabinoid testing include[2][3][6][9][10][11]:

Also worthy of note is recent investigation of viably using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy as a more affordable and rapid solution to identifying cannabinoid contents and profiles of samples. Conferences[12], research[13][14][15], and articles[16][17][18] over the last few years have advanced the use of NMR spectroscopy for cannabinoid analysis.

  1. ↑ "Why 0.877?". Confidence Analytics. 10 February 2016. https://www.conflabs.com/why-0-877/. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Association of Public Health Laboratories (May 2016). "Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs" (PDF). pp. 35. https://www.aphl.org/aboutAPHL/publications/Documents/EH-Guide-State-Med-Cannabis-052016.pdf. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Cassiday, L. (October 2016). "The Highs and Lows of Cannabis Testing". INFORM. American Oil Chemists' Society. https://www.aocs.org/stay-informed/inform-magazine/featured-articles/the-highs-and-lows-of-cannabis-testing-october-2016. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  4. ↑ Rigdon, A. (29 July 2015). "Accurate Quantification of Cannabinoid Acids by GC – Is it Possible?". ChromaBLOGraphy. Restek Corporation. Archived from the original on 01 March 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190301212605/http://blog.restek.com/?p=14961. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  5. ↑ Rigdon, A. (9 September 2015). "Accurate Quantification of Cannabinoid Acids and Neutrals by GC – Derivatives without Calculus". ChromaBLOGraphy. Restek Corporation. Archived from the original on 06 April 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180406091114/https://blog.restek.com/?p=15135. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Division of Environmental Health Sciences, Laboratory of Organic Analytical Chemistry (3 November 2015). "Measurement of Phytocannabinoids using HPLC-PAD, NYS DOH MML-300" (PDF). New York State Department of Health. pp. 34. https://www.wadsworth.org/sites/default/files/WebDoc/576578963/MML-300-01.pdf. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  7. ↑ "Subcommittee D37.03 on Laboratory". ASTM International. https://www.astm.org/COMMIT/SUBCOMMIT/D3703.htm. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  8. ↑ Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (12 November 2019). "New guidelines require laboratories to meet AOAC Standard Method Performance Requirements for Quantitation of Cannabinoids in Hemp". AOAC News. https://www.aoac.org/news/aoac-cannabinoid-standard-in-usda-guidelines/. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  9. ↑ Leghissa, A.; Smuts, J.; Qiu, C. et al. (2018). "Detection of cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites using gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy". SSC Plus 1 (1): 37–42. doi:10.1002/sscp.201700005. 
  10. ↑ "Cannabis Testing: Quality You Can Trust" (PDF). Sigma-Aldritch Co. LLC. 2016. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/marketing/global/documents/116/856/cannabis-testing.pdf. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  11. ↑ Adams, T.; Bertone, M. (30 November 2016). "Near Infrared, GC and HPLC Applications in Cannabis Testing". Cannabis Industry Journal. Innovative Publishing Co. LLC. https://cannabisindustryjournal.com/column/near-infrared-gc-and-hplc-applications-in-cannabis-testing/. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  12. ↑ Zailer, E. (2 January 2019). "Recap of the First NMR Cannabis Meeting". Spectral Service AG. https://www.spectralservice.de/recap-of-the-first-nmr-cannabis-meeting/?lang=en. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  13. ↑ Wang, X.; Harrington, P.B.; Baugh, S.F. (2017). "Comparative Study of NMR Spectral Profiling for the Characterization and Authentication of Cannabis". Journal of AOAC International 100 (5): 1356–64. doi:10.5740/jaoacint.17-0089. PMID 28718398. 
  14. ↑ Marchetti, L.; Brighenti, V.; Rossi, M.C. et al. (2019). "Use of 13C-qNMR Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Non-Psychoactive Cannabinoids in Fibre-Type Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp)". Molecules 24 (6): 1138. doi:10.3390/molecules24061138. 
  15. ↑ Siudem, P.; Wawer, I.; Paradowska, K. (2019). "Rapid evaluation of edible hemp oil quality using NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy". Journal of Molecular Structure 1177: 204–08. doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2018.09.057. 
  16. ↑ May, M. (28 September 2017). "NMR Spectroscopy: Producing a chemical fingerprint of cannabis". Analytical Cannabis. https://www.analyticalcannabis.com/articles/nmr-spectroscopy-producing-a-chemical-fingerprint-of-cannabis-292728. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  17. ↑ Bennett, P. (31 December 2018). "Cannabis Testing Explained: What’s in Your Cannabis?". Leafly. https://www.leafly.com/news/science-tech/why-test-cannabis. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
  18. ↑ Conn, P. (14 March 2019). "Cannabis: Trends in Analytical Research". The Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Inc. https://pittcon.org/cannabis-trends-in-analytical-research/. Retrieved 07 July 2021. 
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